Non-polymer PFAS can build up in blood protein of animals, and is not always removed quickly. This means that predators eating PFAS-contaminated food will have higher levels in their bloodstream, and concentrations can increase up the food chain. Studies suggest that build up of PFAS is similar to those of other Persistent Organic Pollutants such as DDT.PFAS are estimated to be settling in arctic regions at rates of tens to hundreds of kilograms per year (25-850kg per year), depending on the specific PFAS chemical in question. Certain PFAS are released as gases to the environment and are blown a long way by wind and air currents in the atmosphere,. These gas PFAS will over time degrade to more persistent chemicals like PFOS and PFOA. This may be one reason why PFAS of environmental concern have been found in remote regions such as the Arctic as well as near PFAS production sitesPFAS including PFOS and PFOA have been found in air samples around Europe. The chemicals are found in small quantities, but appear in almost all samples tested. PFAS enters the atmosphere both from factories and the air inside our homes. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17554424 PFAS is found in treated waste water from industrial and domestic sources and has been found in both rivers and groundwater. Conventional drinking water processes will not remove PFAS.PFAS-coated clothes that are thrown away will often end up either incinerated or in landfill. Unless incinerated at very high temperatures (>1000oC), fluorinated polymers could release more harmful PFAS during burning. PFAS of environmental concern have also been found in landfill leachate. Non-polymer PFAS are used in the production of fluorinated polymers. The manufacture of stain-resistant finishes generally releases these PFASs into the environment, both by air and water emissions. They are very hard to remove during water treatment. Workers in textiles factories are some of the population most exposed to these potentially harmful chemicals. Small quantities of PFAS will be removed during wash and wear of products containing PFAS. This includes fluorinated polymers used on stain-resistant coatings, and non-polymers that remain on clothes after production (Lassen et al. 2015).Most UK waste still ends up in landfill, and this includes PFAS-containing products. Studies have shown that the liquid coming from landfills (known as leachate) often contain non-polymer PFAS chemicals. In the USA the total quantities were estimated at 563-638 kg in 2013. To properly break down PFAS chemicals high temperature (1000oC or more) incineration is recommended. Incineration of municipal waste does not necessarily reach these temperatures (min temp. required is 850oC), and the incomplete breakdown could release non-polymer PFAS.Wash and wear of clothing that contains PFAS-based stain-resistant or water repellent finishes release PFAS to the environment. Coatings are thought to lose effectiveness after 20-30 washes. This can include non-polymer PFAS, remnant from production or as a break-down product of side-chain polymers (Lassen et al. 2015). The manufacture of stain-resistant finishes releases PFAS into the environment, both by air and water emissions. PFAS are very hard to remove during water treatment. Industrial emissions are estimated to be the biggest source of these chemicals to the environment.

F-gases, Fluoropolymers and PFAS – unpacking the ‘F’amily Ties

Fluorinated gases (F-gases) and fluoropolymers frequently come up in the PFAS conversation – but what exactly are they? In simple terms, fluoropolymers can be considered as ‘PFAS plastics’ and  F-gases as ‘PFAS gases’. Although it should be noted not all F-gases contain PFAS. 

F-gases ‘PFAS gases’

Fluorinated gases or ‘F-gases’ are used for cooling in fridges, air conditioners, heat pumps and cars, and are a major source of PFAS pollution, contributing to more than half of all PFAS emissions [1]. However, PFAS-free natural refrigerants, like CO2 and ammonia, are already widely available, safe and cost effective [2], [3], [4].

These natural alternatives can easily replace PFAS F-gases in most applications without compromising efficiency or profitability. So why are PFAS still used in the majority of F-gases?

To help explain this, it’s useful to look back at the history of F-gases.

The history of F-gases – a story of regrettable substitution

1930
January 1
1930s – Ozone damaging F-gases invented (CFCs)

In the 1930s, the chemical industry introduced Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which quickly became popular for their use in refrigeration and aerosols. However, by the 1980s, scientists discovered that these gases were causing serious environmental damage, particularly by creating a hole in the ozone layer[5]. In response, CFCs were restricted through the 1987 Montreal Protocol, an international agreement aimed at protecting the ozone layer[6].

1980
January 1
Late 1980s – Global warming F-gases introduced (HFCs)

To replace CFCs, industries turned to Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HFCs). While HFCs don’t harm the ozone layer, they have another environmental impact: they are extremely potent greenhouse gases, with a global warming potential (GWP) up to 1,000 times greater than carbon dioxide[7]. As a result, many countries including the EU and UK committed to phasing down the use of HFCs (e.g. The UK is phasing down the use of HFCs by 79% by 2030, the EU has similar targets but is going one step further and will completely phase out their use by 2050) [8], [9].

2000
January 1
Early 2000s – PFAS F-gases introduced (HFOs)

Hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) were then introduced as a solution with lower global warming potential (GWP). One of the most widely used HFOs in Europe, HFO–1234yf, is marketed as environmentally friendly due to its low GWP [10]. However, there’s a hidden downside.
When HFO-1234yf leaks into the atmosphere, it breaks down within 10-14 days into trifluoroacetic acid (TFA ), a type of short-chain PFAS[11]. This TFA then makes its way into rainwater, eventually contaminating water sources on Earth. While HFO-1234yf may help reduce greenhouse gases, TFA is raising serious environmental concerns.

F-gases FAQs

PFAS emissions from F-gases

TFA from F-gases has become an alarmingly huge source of PFAS pollution. A study in 2021 found that the switch from HFCs (the global warming F-gases) to HFOs (the PFAS F-gases) resulted in a 33-fold increase in the global burden of TFA, and up to a 250-fold increase of TFA in surface water concentrations in some parts of Europe[10]. Additionally, it should be noted that both HFCs and HFOs fall under the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) definition for PFAS themselves[12], [13].

What can be done about PFAS F-gases?

It is possible to move away from F gases – natural refrigerants (e.g. CO2 and ammonia) are already well established and can be used successfully, safely, affordably and without reliance on PFAS [4], [14]. The main reason they haven’t been more widely adopted is because the chemical industry has long dominated this space with synthetic options.

Are PFAS F-gases regulated in the UK?

The UK is still to review its F-gas regulation and although the UK government has committed to a phase-down use of HFCs (the global warming F-gases)[8], there is a lack of urgency compared with our European neighbours and we have yet to act on HFOs (PFAS F-gases). With heat pump installations expected to increase in the near future[15], there is a huge risk industry will shift to using more HFOs in the UK, leading to more PFAS pollution[11].

It is essential that F-gases are included in a single set of overarching PFAS regulations within the UK. Sector-specific reviews can miss the broader impact of PFAS-containing products throughout their life cycle, e.g. degradation products. A unified approach to regulation would close these gaps and better control PFAS risks. The hopeful news is that PFAS F-gases can easily transition to safer alternatives that are already widely available[14], [16], ready for the industry to make a positive step.

Fluoropolymers ‘PFAS plastics’

Fluoropolymers represent a distinct subgroup of PFAS and include one of the most well known – polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), also known as Teflon, commonly used in non-stick frying pans. Fluoropolymers are essentially plastics made of PFAS, often used for creating non-stick surfaces and offering high-temperature resistance in a range of products.

While fluoropolymers may be convenient, they come with a heavy environmental cost. Not only are they PFAS themselves, but their production, use and disposal contribute significantly to wider PFAS emissions, as well as microplastic pollution[17].

Pollution during production

To produce fluoropolymers, other types of PFAS are commonly used as ‘processing aids’ to stabilise them and make their production easier*[18]. For decades, PFOA, now one of the most widely restricted PFAS, was used as a processing aid to make fluoropolymers. This led to widespread PFAS pollution, with an estimated 72% of global PFOA/PFO emissions tied to fluoropolymers from 1950 to 2004 [19]. PFOA was banned under the Stockholm Convention in 2019 due to its harmful effects [20], prompting the industry to shift to a newer PFAS for a processing aid called GenX. However, GenX is already being detected in the environment and drinking water source near fluoropolymer production plants, with growing evidence of similar health and environment concerns[21], [22].

PFAS pollution doesn’t just stop with processing aids during the production of fluoropolymers, emissions from monomers (molecules that form polymers), other fluorinated by-products and PFAS such as F-gases also occur[17]. Some of these PFAS emissions can then transform into other PFAS once in the environment[18]. Alarmingly, we still know very little about the quantity and the structural identities of the numerous additional PFAS emitted during fluoropolymer production and the potential risks for public health and the environment.

*Fluoropolymers made through the emulsion polymerization process require fluorosurfactants or ‘processing aids’ to emulsify and stabilize aqueous dispersions.
Credit: Chris Leboutillier, Unsplash
Credit: Chris Leboutillier, Unsplash

Pollution during use

The level of pollution coming from fluoropolymer products varies substantially across different fluoropolymer substances and product types, due to differing production and treatment processes. Additionally, there are notable research gaps regarding emissions from across the various fluoropolymer products available [17].

One more thoroughly researched example considers potential emissions from fluoropolymers used in cookware. If a cookware item has not been properly pre-treated, research has shown this can result in the leaching of PFAS residues into food during cooking [17]. There is also evidence that PTFE can leach microplastics and nanoplastics from cookware. In a recent study, it was found PTFE and plastic cookware could be contributing thousands of microplastics into homecooked food every year [23].

Credit: James Hoey, Unsplash

Pollution during disposal

Fluoropolymers are very persistent, so there are huge challenges when dealing with their disposal. The disposal of fluoropolymers in landfills can result in the contamination of landfill leachate with PFAS and can contribute to the release of PFAS and plastic pollution into the environment [17]​​.

The alternative option of disposal through incineration is not well understood. Incineration may not fully destroy PFAS and can also create harmful by-products[17]. For example, when PTFE is heated to extreme temperatures (between 250 and 600 degrees) it can produce TFA, a highly mobile, short chained PFAS ​[24]. Additionally, one study found incineration of a common fluoropolymer, PCTFE, to lead to the production of over 50 by-products [25]​​.

Credit: Collab media, Unsplash

Fluoropolymer FAQs

What are the current uses of fluoropolymers?

Fluoropolymers are the second most produced subgroup of PFAS after fluorinated gases and are used in a wide range of products, such as cookware, waterproof clothing, battery membranes, and building materials[18]. Despite claims of their safety and essentiality, research suggests that fluoropolymers result in harmful PFAS emissions and production statistics reveal that only 8% of fluoropolymers produced are used for critical applications, such as medical devices [26].

Are fluoropolymers regulated in the UK?

The UK currently does not regulate fluoropolymers. Although fluoropolymers are recognised in the regulatory management options analysis (RMOA) for PFAS, some have been excluded from its scope. This is due to the UK’s narrow definition of PFAS,, which means the RMOA only addresses several hundred substances out of the thousands of known PFAS [32]. Given the widespread use and adverse impacts of these substances, it is essential that fluoropolymers be incorporated into a single set of overarching PFAS regulation within the UK. Doing so presents a huge opportunity to effectively reduce emissions of highly persistent chemicals and safeguard people and the environment.

Are there safer alternatives to fluoropolymers?

Increasingly there are safer alternatives being produced for fluoropolymers across various sectors. Hover over the images below to discover some of the innovative solutions currently available.

* It should be noted Fidra does not endorse these specific brands; they are mentioned solely as examples for demonstration purposes.

Alternatives for frying pans

Stainless steel frying pans without a plastic coasting are PFAS-free. Sol-Gel non-stick is another alternative that creates a non-stick surface for pans without PFAS[27].

Alternatives for solar panels

Companies like Endurans solar have created several PFAS-free alternatives for solar back-sheets used in solar panels[28].

Alternatives for electric cars

Companies such as E-lyte Innovations and Nanoramic Technologies provide solutions to avoid PFAS used in lithium-ion batteries for electric cars[28].

Alternatives for waterproof clothing

There are many waterproof clothing brands that are PFAS-free, such as Alpkit[29], Polartec[30] and Lowe Alpine[31].

What are PFAS?
PFAS in our products

References

[1]        “ANNEX XV RESTRICTION REPORT PROPOSAL FOR A RESTRICTION SUBSTANCE NAME(S): Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs).”

[2]        ATMOphere, “Natural Refrigerants: State of the Industry,” 2023.

[3]        “F-GASES, AN UNPRECEDENTED CASE OF CHEMICAL POLLUTION  – META.” Accessed: Oct. 24, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://meta.eeb.org/2024/05/29/f-gases-an-unprecedented-case-of-chemical-pollution/

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[13]     OECD, “Reconciling Terminology of the Universe of Per-and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances: Recommendations and Practical Guidance Series on Risk Management No.61 JT03479350 OFDE,” 2021.

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[19]     J. Armitage et al., “Modeling global-scale fate and transport of perfluorooctanoate emitted from direct sources,” Environ Sci Technol, vol. 40, no. 22, 2006, doi: 10.1021/es0614870.

[20]     UNEP, “Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), PFAS overview.” Accessed: Oct. 21, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://chm.pops.int/Implementation/IndustrialPOPs/PFAS/Overview/tabid/5221/Default.aspx

[21]     E. O’rourke et al., “Persistence of PFOA Pollution at a PTFE Production Site and Occurrence of Replacement PFASs in English Freshwaters Revealed by Sentinel Species, the Eurasian Otter (Lutra lutra),” Cite This: Environ. Sci. Technol, vol. 58, pp. 10195–10206, 2024, doi: 10.1021/acs.est.3c09405.

[22]     S. H. Brandsma, J. C. Koekkoek, M. J. M. van Velzen, and J. de Boer, “The PFOA substitute GenX detected in the environment near a fluoropolymer manufacturing plant in the Netherlands,” Chemosphere, vol. 220, 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.12.135.

[23]     M. Cole, A. Gomiero, A. Jaén-Gil, M. Haave, and A. Lusher, “Microplastic and PTFE contamination of food from cookware,” Science of the Total Environment, vol. 929, Jun. 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172577.

[24]     J. Cui, J. Guo, Z. Zhai, and J. Zhang, “The contribution of fluoropolymer thermolysis to trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) in environmental media,” Chemosphere, vol. 222, 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.01.174.

[25]     A. L. Myers, K. J. Jobst, S. A. Mabury, and E. J. Reiner, “Using mass defect plots as a discovery tool to identify novel fluoropolymer thermal decomposition products,” Journal of Mass Spectrometry, vol. 49, no. 4, 2014, doi: 10.1002/jms.3340.

[26]     “Slam debunkin’ three myths about fluoropolymers.” Accessed: Nov. 19, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://chemsec.org/slam-debunkin-three-myths-about-fluoropolymers/

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[28]     CHEMTrust, “Frequently Asked Questions: PFAS and the green transition,” Jul. 2024.

[29]     “What Is PFC-Free Clothing and Equipment? | Alpkit.” Accessed: Nov. 20, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://alpkit.com/blogs/spotlight/pfc-free-outdoor-gear?srsltid=AfmBOoqajH-tGKZXIzTiUCStu2xu7BGmKq7eWlGrsk1lzdF_uhBn97NZ

[30]     “Announcing Full Use of Non-PFAS DWR Treatments | Polartec®.” Accessed: Nov. 20, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.polartec.com/news/polartec-announces-full-use-of-non-pfas-dwr-treatments

[31]     “All Lowe Alpine Packs – Rab® EU.” Accessed: Nov. 20, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://rab.equipment/eu/backpacks/all-lowe-alpine-packs?pf_select_claims=Fluorocarbon%20%28PFAS%29%20free%20fabric

[32]Health & Safety Executive, U. G. (2023). Analysis of the most appropriate regulatory management options (RMOA).