Non-polymer PFAS can build up in blood protein of animals, and is not always removed quickly. This means that predators eating PFAS-contaminated food will have higher levels in their bloodstream, and concentrations can increase up the food chain. Studies suggest that build up of PFAS is similar to those of other Persistent Organic Pollutants such as DDT.PFAS are estimated to be settling in arctic regions at rates of tens to hundreds of kilograms per year (25-850kg per year), depending on the specific PFAS chemical in question. Certain PFAS are released as gases to the environment and are blown a long way by wind and air currents in the atmosphere,. These gas PFAS will over time degrade to more persistent chemicals like PFOS and PFOA. This may be one reason why PFAS of environmental concern have been found in remote regions such as the Arctic as well as near PFAS production sitesPFAS including PFOS and PFOA have been found in air samples around Europe. The chemicals are found in small quantities, but appear in almost all samples tested. PFAS enters the atmosphere both from factories and the air inside our homes. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17554424 PFAS is found in treated waste water from industrial and domestic sources and has been found in both rivers and groundwater. Conventional drinking water processes will not remove PFAS.PFAS-coated clothes that are thrown away will often end up either incinerated or in landfill. Unless incinerated at very high temperatures (>1000oC), fluorinated polymers could release more harmful PFAS during burning. PFAS of environmental concern have also been found in landfill leachate. Non-polymer PFAS are used in the production of fluorinated polymers. The manufacture of stain-resistant finishes generally releases these PFASs into the environment, both by air and water emissions. They are very hard to remove during water treatment. Workers in textiles factories are some of the population most exposed to these potentially harmful chemicals. Small quantities of PFAS will be removed during wash and wear of products containing PFAS. This includes fluorinated polymers used on stain-resistant coatings, and non-polymers that remain on clothes after production (Lassen et al. 2015).Most UK waste still ends up in landfill, and this includes PFAS-containing products. Studies have shown that the liquid coming from landfills (known as leachate) often contain non-polymer PFAS chemicals. In the USA the total quantities were estimated at 563-638 kg in 2013. To properly break down PFAS chemicals high temperature (1000oC or more) incineration is recommended. Incineration of municipal waste does not necessarily reach these temperatures (min temp. required is 850oC), and the incomplete breakdown could release non-polymer PFAS.Wash and wear of clothing that contains PFAS-based stain-resistant or water repellent finishes release PFAS to the environment. Coatings are thought to lose effectiveness after 20-30 washes. This can include non-polymer PFAS, remnant from production or as a break-down product of side-chain polymers (Lassen et al. 2015). The manufacture of stain-resistant finishes releases PFAS into the environment, both by air and water emissions. PFAS are very hard to remove during water treatment. Industrial emissions are estimated to be the biggest source of these chemicals to the environment.

PFAS in school uniforms and textiles

Forever chemicals in stain resistant school uniforms

PFAS, also known as ‘forever chemicals’, are often used in clothing and textiles to add a protective stain resistant quality or waterproof layer. In fact, it is estimated that use in textiles accounts for around 35% of global PFAS demand [1]. Washing and disposal of PFAS-treated clothing ultimately leads to PFAS pollution in the environment and exposes people to harmful PFAS as well [2]. Given their continual need for replacement, frequent use and washing, school uniforms were identified as a particular risk for environmental PFAS pollution.

The great news is that PFAS-free options for school uniforms are now widely accessible. By 2022, nearly all UK retailers Fidra engaged with had shifted to offering uniforms without PFAS treatments. To ensure the same levels of protection from other clothing and wider product ranges, and to establish a level playing field amongst businesses and retailers, the UK must introduce a group-wide PFAS restriction.

This is a previous project from Fidra and not one we are actively working on at present.

Fidra's ask

A comprehensive PFAS restriction:  We are calling on the UK Government to introduce a group-based PFAS restriction for all avoidable uses of PFAS in the UK, including PFAS in textiles.

Environmental risks of PFAS in textiles

The use of PFAS in clothing is a concern because it provides a pathway for these chemicals to enter the environment. Abrasion during use, disposal to landfill, incineration and even washing, all result in environmental exposure to PFAS [1]. In fact, research has shown that a significant amount of these chemicals are washed out into the water supply after only 10 washing cycles [3]. Once in our environment, PFAS are highly mobile and persistent, enabling them to spread rapidly throughout water sources and persist in the land for centuries. PFAS pose a range of hidden environmental threats, including risks to soil biota [4], pollinators [5] or aquatic organisms [6]. Currently, no effective or financially viable method exists to remediate PFAS contamination on a large scale, meaning every wash or disposal contributes to the growing environmental burden of these forever chemicals.

Health risks of PFAS in textiles

PFAS in textiles contribute to the cocktail of forever chemicals posing risks to human health. Human exposure to PFAS can be experienced throughout a product’s lifecycle, from emissions lost during production, disposal, and recycling, as well as throughout the products use [2]. Consumers of PFAS containing textiles can be exposed to these forever chemicals via inhalation of small particles generated by abrasion of clothing materials or through absorption of PFAS through the skin[7], [8]. Oral exposure is also particularly prevalent in children, who have more frequent object-to-mouth or hand-to-mouth absorption routes [1], [2]. 6:2 FTOH, one of the main PFAS used for stain resistance in school uniforms [9], has been found to be highly toxic to rodents and therefore may also pose risks to human health [10].

Exposure from textiles is just one of the routes from which PFAS can impact our health, which is why Fidra is calling for a group-based PFAS restriction that better safeguards the health of people and the environment.

Our work on PFAS in school uniforms

Fidra investigated whether the supposed benefits of stain-resistant coatings in school uniforms are translated into practical benefits to households. We conducted a nationwide survey, including over 600 parents and guardians of primary school age children across the UK, to ask them about their school uniform washing and purchasing habits.

Contrary to expectations, we found little to no tangible consumer benefit of a PFAS stain-resistant finish to school uniforms.  For example, there was no decrease in how often people washed school uniforms relating to the ‘stain resistant’ finish, and no decrease in how often people replaced the school uniforms. School uniforms were still bought as frequently, regardless of whether they had been treated with stain resistance or not. By looking into the specifics of the branded finishes offered to customers, we also learnt that most finishes only last 10 or 20 washes. We calculated that this represented less than a third of the average ‘first-use’ life (i.e. takes no account of use by subsequent children). Overall, these findings suggest that there is little to no tangible consumer benefit of a PFAS stain-resistant finish to school uniforms.

Progress from UK retailers

Our survey helped Fidra to work with retailers on eliminating PFAS-containing clothing from their lines of school uniforms. As of 2022, almost all UK retailers Fidra engaged with were selling PFAS-free school uniforms. This has been helped by increasing general awareness about the harms of PFAS and the number of PFAS alternatives that are now available.

We have created the table below showing progress from UK retailers. This data is accurate as of 2022.

Retailers
  • Supermarkets
    Supermarkets
  • Aldi
    Aldi
  • Asda (George)
    Asda (George)
  • Lidl
    Lidl
  • M&S
    M&S
  • Morrisons (Nutmeg)
    Morrisons (Nutmeg)
  • Sainsbury's (Tu)
    Sainsbury's (Tu)
  • Tesco (F&F)
    Tesco (F&F)
  • Highstreet Shops
    Highstreet Shops
  • Gap
    Gap
  • H&M
    H&M
  • John Lewis
    John Lewis
  • Matalan
    Matalan
  • Next
    Next
Do they sell PFAS stain resistant uniforms?
$20 / month
  • Supermarkets
  • Aldi
    No info_outline
  • Asda (George)
    No info_outline
  • Lidl
    No info_outline
  • M&S
    No info_outline
  • Morrisons (Nutmeg)
    No info_outline
  • Sainsbury's (Tu)
    No info_outline
  • Tesco (F&F)
    No info_outline
  • Highstreet Shops
  • Gap
    ?
  • H&M
    No info_outline
  • John Lewis
    No
  • Matalan
    No info_outline
  • Next
    No
Are stain resistant uniforms available without a PFAS coating?
$50 / month
  • Supermarkets
  • Aldi
    Yes info_outline
  • Asda (George)
    Yes info_outline
  • Lidl
    Yes info_outline
  • M&S
    Yes info_outline
  • Morrisons (Nutmeg)
    Yes info_outline
  • Sainsbury's (Tu)
    Yes info_outline
  • Tesco (F&F)
    Yes info_outline
  • Highstreet Shops
  • Gap
    No
  • H&M
    Yes info_outline
  • John Lewis
    Yes info_outline
  • Matalan
    Yesinfo_outline
  • Next
    Yesinfo_outline
Are uniforms available without any stain resistant coating?
$20 / month
  • Supermarkets
  • Aldi
  • Asda (George)
    No information supplied
  • Lidl
    No information supplied
  • M&S
    No information supplied
  • Morrisons (Nutmeg)
    Yes, some items are available without stain resistance
  • Sainsbury's (Tu)
    Yes, there are some products within the schoolwear range which do not have a stain resistant coating applied.
  • Tesco (F&F)
    No information supplied
  • Highstreet Shops
  • Gap
    No information supplied
  • H&M
    No information supplied
  • John Lewis
    Some items available without stain resistance
  • Matalan
    No information supplied
  • Next
    No information supplied

The UK’s current stance on PFAS in textiles

Currently there are no restrictions on PFAS use in textiles being taken forward in the UK.

Fidra are calling on the UK Government to introduce a group-based restriction on all avoidable uses of PFAS, including PFAS use in textiles.

Resources

PFAS in School Uniforms

This report surveyed 600 parents and guardians across the UK and revealed that PFAS stain-resistant finishes on school uniforms provide little tangible benefit, as these finishes neither reduce washing frequency nor delay uniform replacement.

Published: June 2018

Author: Fidra

Read report

An assessment on PFAS in textiles in Europe’s circular economy

This report from the European Environment Agency gives an indepth summary of the uses of PFAS within the textile industry, the risks to human health and the environment, current regulation and the implications for a circular economy. Although it is focussed on the EU, the contents of the report can be applied more widely.

Published: Feb 2024

Author: European Environment Agency

Read report

Toxics in our clothing

This wide reaching studytested jackets and other clothing sold as water- or stain-resistant for PFAS from 13 countries in Asia, Africa, Europe and North America.

Published: Nov 2023

Author: Straková, J., Brosché, S., Brabcová, K

Read report

References

[1]        European Environment Agency, “PFAS in textiles in Europe’s circular economy.” Accessed: Jan. 09, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/publications/pfas-in-textiles-in-europes-circular-economy

[2]        European Environment Agency, “An assessment on PFAS in textiles in Europe’s circular economy,” Feb. 2024. Accessed: Jan. 10, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/publications/pfas-in-textiles-in-europes-circular-economy/an-assessment-on-pfas-in-textiles-in-europes-circular-economy/@@download/file

[3]        I. Van Der Veen et al., “Fate of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances from Durable Water-Repellent Clothing during Use,” Environ Sci Technol, vol. 56, no. 9, pp. 5886–5897, May 2022, doi: 10.1021/ACS.EST.1C07876/ASSET/IMAGES/LARGE/ES1C07876_0004.JPEG.

[4]        The James Hutton Institute, “Using new contaminants information to re-assess environmental risks from sewage sludge,” Dec. 2024. Accessed: Jan. 09, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.hutton.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Fidra-SS-Risk-Assessment-Final-Report_December-2024_FINAL_Cover-2.pdf

[5]        C. A. Sonter, R. Rader, G. Stevenson, J. R. Stavert, and S. C. Wilson, “Biological and behavioral responses of European honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies to perfluorooctane sulfonate exposure,” Integr Environ Assess Manag, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 673–683, Jul. 2021, doi: 10.1002/IEAM.4421.

[6]        A. J. Lewis, X. Yun, D. E. Spooner, M. J. Kurz, E. R. McKenzie, and C. M. Sales, “Exposure pathways and bioaccumulation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in freshwater aquatic ecosystems: Key considerations,” Science of The Total Environment, vol. 822, p. 153561, May 2022, doi: 10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2022.153561.

[7]        A. P. Periyasamy, “Microfiber Emissions from Functionalized Textiles: Potential Threat for Human Health and Environmental Risks,” Toxics 2023, Vol. 11, Page 406, vol. 11, no. 5, p. 406, Apr. 2023, doi: 10.3390/TOXICS11050406.

[8]        O. Ragnarsdóttir, M. A. E. Abdallah, and S. Harrad, “Dermal uptake: An important pathway of human exposure to perfluoroalkyl substances?,” Environmental Pollution, vol. 307, p. 119478, Aug. 2022, doi: 10.1016/J.ENVPOL.2022.119478.

[9]        C. Xia et al., “Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in North American School Uniforms,” Environ Sci Technol, vol. 56, no. 19, pp. 13845–13857, Oct. 2022, doi: 10.1021/ACS.EST.2C02111/ASSET/IMAGES/LARGE/ES2C02111_0004.JPEG.

[10]     P. A. Rice, J. Aungst, J. Cooper, O. Bandele, and S. V. Kabadi, “Comparative analysis of the toxicological databases for 6:2 fluorotelomer alcohol (6:2 FTOH) and perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA),” Food and Chemical Toxicology, vol. 138, p. 111210, Apr. 2020, doi: 10.1016/J.FCT.2020.111210.