Non-polymer PFAS can build up in blood protein of animals, and is not always removed quickly. This means that predators eating PFAS-contaminated food will have higher levels in their bloodstream, and concentrations can increase up the food chain. Studies suggest that build up of PFAS is similar to those of other Persistent Organic Pollutants such as DDT.PFAS are estimated to be settling in arctic regions at rates of tens to hundreds of kilograms per year (25-850kg per year), depending on the specific PFAS chemical in question. Certain PFAS are released as gases to the environment and are blown a long way by wind and air currents in the atmosphere,. These gas PFAS will over time degrade to more persistent chemicals like PFOS and PFOA. This may be one reason why PFAS of environmental concern have been found in remote regions such as the Arctic as well as near PFAS production sitesPFAS including PFOS and PFOA have been found in air samples around Europe. The chemicals are found in small quantities, but appear in almost all samples tested. PFAS enters the atmosphere both from factories and the air inside our homes. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17554424 PFAS is found in treated waste water from industrial and domestic sources and has been found in both rivers and groundwater. Conventional drinking water processes will not remove PFAS.PFAS-coated clothes that are thrown away will often end up either incinerated or in landfill. Unless incinerated at very high temperatures (>1000oC), fluorinated polymers could release more harmful PFAS during burning. PFAS of environmental concern have also been found in landfill leachate. Non-polymer PFAS are used in the production of fluorinated polymers. The manufacture of stain-resistant finishes generally releases these PFASs into the environment, both by air and water emissions. They are very hard to remove during water treatment. Workers in textiles factories are some of the population most exposed to these potentially harmful chemicals. Small quantities of PFAS will be removed during wash and wear of products containing PFAS. This includes fluorinated polymers used on stain-resistant coatings, and non-polymers that remain on clothes after production (Lassen et al. 2015).Most UK waste still ends up in landfill, and this includes PFAS-containing products. Studies have shown that the liquid coming from landfills (known as leachate) often contain non-polymer PFAS chemicals. In the USA the total quantities were estimated at 563-638 kg in 2013. To properly break down PFAS chemicals high temperature (1000oC or more) incineration is recommended. Incineration of municipal waste does not necessarily reach these temperatures (min temp. required is 850oC), and the incomplete breakdown could release non-polymer PFAS.Wash and wear of clothing that contains PFAS-based stain-resistant or water repellent finishes release PFAS to the environment. Coatings are thought to lose effectiveness after 20-30 washes. This can include non-polymer PFAS, remnant from production or as a break-down product of side-chain polymers (Lassen et al. 2015). The manufacture of stain-resistant finishes releases PFAS into the environment, both by air and water emissions. PFAS are very hard to remove during water treatment. Industrial emissions are estimated to be the biggest source of these chemicals to the environment.

What are PFAS?

PFAS, or “forever chemicals,” are a group of over 10,000 man-made substances [1] that can pose significant risks to human and environmental health.

PFAS are widely used in society for their water, heat, and stain-resistant properties but come with some hidden costs. Forever chemicals can disrupt biological processes, meaning they can be toxic to many species, including humans. Worse still, these chemicals don’t breakdown in the environment, meaning they have been building up around us for years, posing long-term risks to our health and the planet.

PFAS are all around us

PFAS are turning up in more places than we had ever imagined. Found in numerous everyday items like food packaging [2], clothing [3], shampoos [4], and non-consumer products like fire-fighting foams and pesticides, these chemicals can enter our lives from a huge range of sources. Using these products releases PFAS into our homes, our food and even the air we breathe. Disposing of them only provides a pathway for PFAS to enter the environment, where they can take over 1000 years to degrade [5].

The result of all this? Research shows that most people now carry PFAS in their blood [6]. These chemicals are so persistent that they’ve been found everywhere—from the peaks of Mount Everest [7] to the depths of the ocean [8]. Despite increasing awareness of the damage that these chemicals can cause, PFAS production continues to increase and new PFAS are being invented every year [9].

Environmental health risks of PFAS

PFAS can be released into the environment at every stage of a product’s lifecycle. PFAS molecules are highly mobile and once they enter the water supply, they can circulate all over the globe. PFAS can accumulate in plants, in animals and then are transferred through food chains. As a result, PFAS contamination poses several direct threats to the health of the environment and ecosystems we depend on.

  • Toxic impact on wildlife: The PFAS we use in our everyday products can end up in the tissues of wildlife, resulting in numerous health issues. PFAS has been shown to disrupt hormones in seals [10] reduce hatching success in birds [11] and pose a particularly high risk to livestock and poultry [14].
  • Soil health and agricultural land: Soils are a major sink of chemical pollutants. PFAS can enter our soils through PFAS-containing pesticides or contaminated sewage sludge. These chemicals can influence soil pH and structure [13], as well as harm the small organisms that maintain soil function [14].
  • Contaminated water sources: PFAS have been found in rivers, lakes, reservoirs and seas all over the globe. Not only does this harm aquatic wildlife but leads to contamination of drinking water supplies. In England, more than a third of water courses have been found to be contaminated with medium to high risk levels of PFAS [15].

Overall, the harms that our environment is facing from PFAS is causing long-term environmental damage, threatening the stability and function of our ecosystems. Tighter regulation of PFAS is essential to prevent further introduction of these chemicals into our environment and we need stronger methods for cleaning up our already contaminated nature.

Human health risks from PFAS

Continued exposure to PFAS is causing these damaging chemicals to accumulate in our bodies. We are only just beginning to appreciate the health impacts of long-term PFAS exposure, but they are already being linked with several serious health conditions:

  • Cancer: Several PFAS have been identified as carcinogens. Repeated exposure to these chemicals have been associated with higher rates of kidney [16], [17], thyroid [18], testicular [16], ovarian [16] and prostate cancers [16], [17].
  • Liver damage: PFAS have been found to accumulate in the liver [19], impacting function and increasing the risk of liver disease [20].
  • Neurodivergence: Exposure to certain PFAS during pregnancy has been shown to result in greater instances of autism or ADHD [7], [8].
  • Obesity: Numerous studies have documented links between PFAS exposure and obesity as well as type 2 diabetes [23].
  • Reproductive health concerns: A range of PFAS have been shown to disrupt female hormone secretion, menstrual cycling and lead to reduced fertility in men and women [24], [25].

We are calling for an urgent transition towards a PFAS-free economy in the UK, restricting all avoidable uses whilst supporting innovation towards safer alternatives. Many industries are already working to phase PFAS out of their supply chains and a growing number of PFAS-free products are readily available. This must now be supported by a robust regulatory framework to ensure a just transition and level playing field across the UK.

We are working to tackle the PFAS pollution crisis

Although scientists say that we have already exceeded the planetary boundary limit for PFAS [26], current regulation of these chemicals is limited. Proposed restrictions in the UK only cover a few hundred of the over 10,000 PFAS [1]. This approach leaves us vulnerable to ‘regrettable substitution’, the replacement of restricted PFAS, with other PFAS that fall outside of scope for regulation but are likely to be equally harmful. Furthermore, many industries are not required to disclose the PFAS contained within their products, making it difficult for consumers to make a PFAS-free choice.

Fidra is working with Governments, industry other NGO’s and a range of stakeholders to develop practical solutions to tackle the PFAS contamination problem in the UK and beyond. You can read more about our current work on PFAS and pesticides and our asks for a PFAS-free economy in the UK.

References

[1]        European Chemicals Agency, “ANNEX XV RESTRICTION REPORT PROPOSAL FOR A RESTRICTION,” 2023. Accessed: Nov. 25, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/f605d4b5-7c17-7414-8823-b49b9fd43aea

[2]        J. Straková, J. Schneider, and N. Cingotti, “Throwaway packaging, forever chemicals: European wide survey of PFAS in disposable food packaging and tableware.,” 2021. Accessed: Nov. 27, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://chemtrust.org/wp-content/uploads/CHE_PFAS_FCM_15July2021_Final.pdf

[3]        European Environment Agency, “PFAS in textiles in Europe’s circular economy.” Accessed: Nov. 23, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/publications/pfas-in-textiles-in-europes-circular-economy

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[13]     B. Xu, G. Yang, A. Lehmann, S. Riedel, and M. C. Rillig, “Effects of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) on soil structure and function,” Soil Ecology Letters, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 108–117, Mar. 2023, doi: 10.1007/S42832-022-0143-5/METRICS.

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[17]     V. Barry, A. Winquist, and K. Steenland, “Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) Exposures and Incident Cancers among Adults Living Near a Chemical Plant,” Environ Health Perspect, vol. 121, no. 11–12, pp. 1313–1318, Nov. 2013, doi: 10.1289/ehp.1306615.

[18]     M. van Gerwen et al., “Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) exposure and thyroid cancer risk,” EBioMedicine, vol. 97, Nov. 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2023.104831.

[19]     A. Kärrman et al., “Biomonitoring perfluorinated compounds in Catalonia, Spain: Concentrations and trends in human liver and milk samples,” Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 750–758, Feb. 2010, doi: 10.1007/S11356-009-0178-5/METRICS.

[20]     E. Costello et al., “Exposure to per-and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Markers of Liver Injury: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” Environ Health Perspect, vol. 130, no. 4, Apr. 2022, doi: 10.1289/EHP10092/SUPPL_FILE/EHP10092.S002.CODEANDDATA.ACCO.ZIP.

[21]     T. S. Skogheim et al., “Prenatal exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and associations with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder in children,” Environ Res, vol. 202, p. 111692, Nov. 2021, doi: 10.1016/J.ENVRES.2021.111692.

[22]     H. M. Shin, D. H. Bennett, A. M. Calafat, D. Tancredi, and I. Hertz-Picciotto, “Modeled prenatal exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in association with child autism spectrum disorder: A case-control study,” Environ Res, vol. 186, p. 109514, Jul. 2020, doi: 10.1016/J.ENVRES.2020.109514.

[23]     W. Qi, J. M. Clark, A. R. Timme-Laragy, and Y. Park, “Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances and obesity, type 2 diabetes and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: a review of epidemiologic findings,” Toxicol Environ Chem, vol. 102, no. 1–4, pp. 1–36, Apr. 2020, doi: 10.1080/02772248.2020.1763997.

[24]     B. P. Rickard, I. Rizvi, and S. E. Fenton, “Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and female reproductive outcomes: PFAS elimination, endocrine-mediated effects, and disease,” Toxicology, vol. 465, p. 153031, Jan. 2022, doi: 10.1016/J.TOX.2021.153031.

[25]     K. K. Hærvig et al., “Maternal Exposure to Per-and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) and Male Reproductive Function in Young Adulthood: Combined Exposure to Seven PFAS,” Environ Health Perspect, vol. 130, no. 10, pp. 1–11, Oct. 2022, doi: 10.1289/EHP10285/SUPPL_FILE/EHP10285.S001.ACCO.PDF.

[26]     I. T. Cousins, J. H. Johansson, M. E. Salter, B. Sha, and M. Scheringer, “Outside the Safe Operating Space of a New Planetary Boundary for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS),” Environ Sci Technol, 2022, doi: 10.1021/ACS.EST.2C02765.