Non-polymer PFAS can build up in blood protein of animals, and is not always removed quickly. This means that predators eating PFAS-contaminated food will have higher levels in their bloodstream, and concentrations can increase up the food chain. Studies suggest that build up of PFAS is similar to those of other Persistent Organic Pollutants such as DDT.PFAS are estimated to be settling in arctic regions at rates of tens to hundreds of kilograms per year (25-850kg per year), depending on the specific PFAS chemical in question. Certain PFAS are released as gases to the environment and are blown a long way by wind and air currents in the atmosphere,. These gas PFAS will over time degrade to more persistent chemicals like PFOS and PFOA. This may be one reason why PFAS of environmental concern have been found in remote regions such as the Arctic as well as near PFAS production sitesPFAS including PFOS and PFOA have been found in air samples around Europe. The chemicals are found in small quantities, but appear in almost all samples tested. PFAS enters the atmosphere both from factories and the air inside our homes. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17554424 PFAS is found in treated waste water from industrial and domestic sources and has been found in both rivers and groundwater. Conventional drinking water processes will not remove PFAS.PFAS-coated clothes that are thrown away will often end up either incinerated or in landfill. Unless incinerated at very high temperatures (>1000oC), fluorinated polymers could release more harmful PFAS during burning. PFAS of environmental concern have also been found in landfill leachate. Non-polymer PFAS are used in the production of fluorinated polymers. The manufacture of stain-resistant finishes generally releases these PFASs into the environment, both by air and water emissions. They are very hard to remove during water treatment. Workers in textiles factories are some of the population most exposed to these potentially harmful chemicals. Small quantities of PFAS will be removed during wash and wear of products containing PFAS. This includes fluorinated polymers used on stain-resistant coatings, and non-polymers that remain on clothes after production (Lassen et al. 2015).Most UK waste still ends up in landfill, and this includes PFAS-containing products. Studies have shown that the liquid coming from landfills (known as leachate) often contain non-polymer PFAS chemicals. In the USA the total quantities were estimated at 563-638 kg in 2013. To properly break down PFAS chemicals high temperature (1000oC or more) incineration is recommended. Incineration of municipal waste does not necessarily reach these temperatures (min temp. required is 850oC), and the incomplete breakdown could release non-polymer PFAS.Wash and wear of clothing that contains PFAS-based stain-resistant or water repellent finishes release PFAS to the environment. Coatings are thought to lose effectiveness after 20-30 washes. This can include non-polymer PFAS, remnant from production or as a break-down product of side-chain polymers (Lassen et al. 2015). The manufacture of stain-resistant finishes releases PFAS into the environment, both by air and water emissions. PFAS are very hard to remove during water treatment. Industrial emissions are estimated to be the biggest source of these chemicals to the environment.
27th March 2025

Fidra joins BBC Radio 4’s Rare Earth podcast

In March 2025, Fidra joined leading PFAS experts on BBC Radio 4’s Rare Earth podcast to explore the critical issue of ‘forever chemicals’ and their far-reaching implications for public health and the environment. 

The hour-long programme provided a comprehensive look into PFAS (Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances), giving important background into these persistent chemicals and why there is such growing concern from scientists, industry, NGOs and policy makers.  

Stephanie Metzger, of the Royal Society of Chemistry, first explains why the very properties that once made PFAS seem innovative now represent a significant threat to human and environmental health. Robert Bilott, lawyer and activist, reflects on his years of legal action on behalf of communities affected by these forever chemicals across the US and the on-going challenges of addressing widespread PFAS contamination. Leana Hosea, underscores this with a startlingly similar case from Bentham, Northern England. Local families in Bentham are now battling with firefighting foam manufacturer, Angus Fire, following significant PFAS contamination in the area, resulting in falling property prices and rising health concerns. 

Hannah Evans, Project Manager at Fidra, emphasised the most effective approach to addressing this urgent environmental challenge: implementing a universal restriction on all avoidable uses of PFAS. Currently, only three PFAS are banned in the UK, while the European Union is considering a comprehensive ban on all 10,000 substances for all non-essential uses. Only with a precautionary approach like this can we prevent repeated cases of ‘regrettable substitution’ – where one restricted chemical is replaced with another similar substance with equal potential for harm. Countries like France and Denmark are also introducing sector-specific restrictions to begin reducing emission ahead of a potential universal restriction. Experts agreed that the negative health and environmental impacts of PFAS are already far-reaching, with potentially unknown risks still emerging. Furthermore, the persistence of these chemicals means that it is near impossible to clean them up once in the environment. 

Whilst PFAS certainly present significant challenges, they also offer opportunity. The UK now has the chance to make decisive action and commit to align with the proposed EU universal PFAS restriction, as recommended by over 50 leading scientists in a letter to UK Ministers. This would provide meaningful protection for public and environmental health, generate clarity for supply chains and drive innovation towards safer alternatives.  

Listen now to the full podcast here. 

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