Non-polymer PFAS can build up in blood protein of animals, and is not always removed quickly. This means that predators eating PFAS-contaminated food will have higher levels in their bloodstream, and concentrations can increase up the food chain. Studies suggest that build up of PFAS is similar to those of other Persistent Organic Pollutants such as DDT.PFAS are estimated to be settling in arctic regions at rates of tens to hundreds of kilograms per year (25-850kg per year), depending on the specific PFAS chemical in question. Certain PFAS are released as gases to the environment and are blown a long way by wind and air currents in the atmosphere,. These gas PFAS will over time degrade to more persistent chemicals like PFOS and PFOA. This may be one reason why PFAS of environmental concern have been found in remote regions such as the Arctic as well as near PFAS production sitesPFAS including PFOS and PFOA have been found in air samples around Europe. The chemicals are found in small quantities, but appear in almost all samples tested. PFAS enters the atmosphere both from factories and the air inside our homes. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17554424 PFAS is found in treated waste water from industrial and domestic sources and has been found in both rivers and groundwater. Conventional drinking water processes will not remove PFAS.PFAS-coated clothes that are thrown away will often end up either incinerated or in landfill. Unless incinerated at very high temperatures (>1000oC), fluorinated polymers could release more harmful PFAS during burning. PFAS of environmental concern have also been found in landfill leachate. Non-polymer PFAS are used in the production of fluorinated polymers. The manufacture of stain-resistant finishes generally releases these PFASs into the environment, both by air and water emissions. They are very hard to remove during water treatment. Workers in textiles factories are some of the population most exposed to these potentially harmful chemicals. Small quantities of PFAS will be removed during wash and wear of products containing PFAS. This includes fluorinated polymers used on stain-resistant coatings, and non-polymers that remain on clothes after production (Lassen et al. 2015).Most UK waste still ends up in landfill, and this includes PFAS-containing products. Studies have shown that the liquid coming from landfills (known as leachate) often contain non-polymer PFAS chemicals. In the USA the total quantities were estimated at 563-638 kg in 2013. To properly break down PFAS chemicals high temperature (1000oC or more) incineration is recommended. Incineration of municipal waste does not necessarily reach these temperatures (min temp. required is 850oC), and the incomplete breakdown could release non-polymer PFAS.Wash and wear of clothing that contains PFAS-based stain-resistant or water repellent finishes release PFAS to the environment. Coatings are thought to lose effectiveness after 20-30 washes. This can include non-polymer PFAS, remnant from production or as a break-down product of side-chain polymers (Lassen et al. 2015). The manufacture of stain-resistant finishes releases PFAS into the environment, both by air and water emissions. PFAS are very hard to remove during water treatment. Industrial emissions are estimated to be the biggest source of these chemicals to the environment.

Citations

  1. Agency USEP. 2018 26/04/2018. Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS).   <https://www.epa.gov/pfas>. Accessed 2018 26/04/2018.
  2. Dinsmore KJ. School Uniforms Survey. Fidra; 2018.
  3. Monroy R, Morrison K, Teo K, Atkinson S, Kubwabo C, Stewart B, Foster WG. Serum levels of perfluoroalkyl compounds in human maternal and umbilical cord blood samples. Environmental Research 2008;108(1):56-62.
  4. Liu J, Li J, Liu Y, Chan HM, Zhao Y, Cai Z, Wu Y. Comparison on gestation and lactation exposure of perfluorinated compounds for newborns. Environment International 2011;37(7):1206-1212.
  5. Kato K, Wong L-Y, Jia LT, Kuklenyik Z, Calafat AM. Trends in Exposure to Polyfluoroalkyl Chemicals in the U.S. Population: 1999−2008. Environmental Science & Technology 2011;45(19):8037-8045.
  6. Zhang T, Sun H, Qin X, Gan Z, Kannan K. PFOS and PFOA in paired urine and blood from general adults and pregnant women: assessment of urinary elimination. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 2015;22(7):5572-5579.
  7. Mondal D, Lopez-Espinosa M-J, Armstrong B, Stein CR, Fletcher T. Relationships of Perfluorooctanoate and Perfluorooctane Sulfonate Serum Concentrations between Mother–Child Pairs in a Population with Perfluorooctanoate Exposure from Drinking Water. Environmental Health Perspectives 2012;120(5):752-757.
  8. Pan Y, Shi Y, Wang J, Cai Y. Evaluation of perfluorinated compounds in seven wastewater treatment plants in Beijing urban areas. Science China Chemistry 2011;54(3):552-558.
  9. Björklund JA, Thuresson K, de Wit CA. Perfluoroalkyl Compounds (PFCs) in Indoor Dust: Concentrations, Human Exposure Estimates, and Sources. Environmental Science & Technology 2009;43(7):2276-2281.
  10. Giesy JP, Kannan K. Peer Reviewed: Perfluorochemical Surfactants in the Environment. Environmental Science & Technology 2002;36(7):146A-152A.
  11. Calafat AM, Wong L-Y, Kuklenyik Z, Reidy JA, Needham LL. Polyfluoroalkyl Chemicals in the U.S. Population: Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003–2004 and Comparisons with NHANES 1999–2000. Environmental Health Perspectives 2007;115(11):1596-1602.
  12. Liu G, Dhana K, Furtado JD, Rood J, Zong G, Liang L, Qi L, Bray GA, DeJonge L, Coull B and others. Perfluoroalkyl substances and changes in body weight and resting metabolic rate in response to weight-loss diets: A prospective study. PLOS Medicine 2018;15(2):e1002502.
  13. Eggers Pedersen K, Basu N, Letcher R, Greaves AK, Sonne C, Dietz R, Styrishave B. Brain region-specific perfluoroalkylated sulfonate (PFSA) and carboxylic acid (PFCA) accumulation and neurochemical biomarker Responses in east Greenland polar Bears (Ursus maritimus). Environmental Research 2015;138:22-31.
  14. Barber JL, Berger U, Chaemfa C, Huber S, Jahnke A, Temme C, Jones KC. Analysis of per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances in air samples from Northwest Europe. J Environ Monit 2007;9(6):530-41.
  15. Ahrens L, Gerwinski W, Theobald N, Ebinghaus R. Sources of polyfluoroalkyl compounds in the North Sea, Baltic Sea and Norwegian Sea: Evidence from their spatial distribution in surface water. Marine Pollution Bulletin 2010;60(2):255-260.
  16. Yamashita N, Kannan K, Taniyasu S, Horii Y, Petrick G, Gamo T. A global survey of perfluorinated acids in oceans. Marine Pollution Bulletin 2005;51(8):658-668.
  17. Ahrens L, Felizeter S, Ebinghaus R. Spatial distribution of polyfluoroalkyl compounds in seawater of the German Bight. Chemosphere 2009;76(2):179-184.
  18. Zushi Y, Tamada M, Kanai Y, Masunaga S. Time trends of perfluorinated compounds from the sediment core of Tokyo Bay, Japan (1950s-2004). Environ Pollut 2010;158(3):756-63.
  19. Muller CE, De Silva AO, Small J, Williamson M, Wang X, Morris A, Katz S, Gamberg M, Muir DC. Biomagnification of perfluorinated compounds in a remote terrestrial food chain: Lichen-Caribou-wolf. Environ Sci Technol 2011;45(20):8665-73.
  20. Magali Houde, ‡, Jonathan W. Martin, Robert J. Letcher, Keith R. Solomon a, Derek C. G. Muir*, ‡. Biological Monitoring of Polyfluoroalkyl Substances:  A Review. 2006.
  21. Kim S-K, Kannan K. Perfluorinated Acids in Air, Rain, Snow, Surface Runoff, and Lakes: Relative Importance of Pathways to Contamination of Urban Lakes. 2007.
  22. Melissa M. Schultz, Douglas F. Barofsky a, Jennifer A. Field*, ‡. Quantitative Determination of Fluorotelomer Sulfonates in Groundwater by LC MS/MS. 2004.
  23. Ericson I, Domingo JL, Nadal M, Bigas E, Llebaria X, van Bavel B, Lindstrom G. Levels of perfluorinated chemicals in municipal drinking water from Catalonia, Spain: public health implications. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 2009;57(4):631-8.
  24. Hansen KJ, Johnson HO, Eldridge JS, Butenhoff JL, Dick LA. Quantitative characterization of trace levels of PFOS and PFOA in the Tennessee River. Environ Sci Technol 2002;36(8):1681-5.
  25. Michael S. McLachlan, Katrin E. Holmström, Margot Reth a, Berger U. Riverine Discharge of Perfluorinated Carboxylates from the European Continent. 2007.
  26. Möller A, Ahrens L, Surm R, Westerveld J, van der Wielen F, Ebinghaus R, de Voogt P. Distribution and sources of polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the River Rhine watershed. Environmental Pollution 2010;158(10):3243-3250.
  27. Bryan Boulanger, John Vargo, Jerald L. Schnoor a, Keri C. Hornbuckle*. Detection of Perfluorooctane Surfactants in Great Lakes Water. 2004.
  28. Nobuyoshi Yamashita, Kurunthachalam Kannan, ‡, Sachi Taniyasu, Yuichi Horii, Tsuyoshi Okazawa, Gert Petrick a, Gamo‖ T. Analysis of Perfluorinated Acids at Parts-Per-Quadrillion Levels in Seawater Using Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry. 2004.
  29. Yeung LWY, Dassuncao C, Mabury S, Sunderland EM, Zhang X, Lohmann R. Vertical Profiles, Sources, and Transport of PFASs in the Arctic Ocean. Environ Sci Technol 2017;51(12):6735-6744.
  30. Becker AM, Gerstmann S, Frank H. Perfluorooctane surfactants in waste waters, the major source of river pollution. Chemosphere 2008;72(1):115-21.
  31. Cheryl A. Moody, Jonathan W. Martin, Wai Chi Kwan, Derek C. G. Muir a, Scott A. Mabury*. Monitoring Perfluorinated Surfactants in Biota and Surface Water Samples Following an Accidental Release of Fire-Fighting Foam into Etobicoke Creek. 2001.
  32. Lassen C, Kjølholt J, Hagen Mikkelsen S, Warming M, Jensen AA, Bossi R, Bondgaard Nielsen, Inge. Polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in textiles for Copenhagen2015.
  33. Busch J, Ahrens L, Sturm R, Ebinghaus R. Polyfluoroalkyl compounds in landfill leachates. Environmental Pollution 2010;158(5):1467-1471.
  34. Wang T, Khim JS, Chen C, Naile JE, Lu Y, Kannan K, Park J, Luo W, Jiao W, Hu W and others. Perfluorinated compounds in surface waters from Northern China: comparison to level of industrialization. Environ Int 2012;42:37-46.
  35. David A. Ellis, Jonathan W. Martin, Amila O. De Silva, Scott A. Mabury, †, Michael D. Hurley, Mads P. Sulbaek Andersen, § and, Wallington‡ TJ. Degradation of Fluorotelomer Alcohols:  A Likely Atmospheric Source of Perfluorinated Carboxylic Acids. 2004.
  36. Saikat S, Kreis I, Davies B, Bridgman S, Kamanyire R. The impact of PFOS on health in the general population: a review. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts 2013;15(2):329-335.
  37. Chunyuan F, McLaughlin JK, Tarone RE, Olsen J, xf, rn. Perfluorinated Chemicals and Fetal Growth: A Study within the Danish National Birth Cohort. Environmental Health Perspectives 2007;115(11):1677-1682.
  38. Melzer D, Rice N, Depledge MH, Henley WE, Galloway TS. Association between Serum Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) and Thyroid Disease in the U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Environmental Health Perspectives 2010;118(5):686-692.
  39.   <http://echa.europa.eu/information-on-chemicals>.
  40. Kjølholt J, Jensen AA, Warming M. Short-chain Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS). Copenhagen2015.
  41. Jones PD, Hu W, De Coen W, Newsted JL, Giesy JP. Binding of perfluorinated fatty acids to serum proteins. Environ Toxicol Chem 2003;22(11):2639-49.
  42. Vanden Heuvel JP, Kuslikis BI, Van Rafelghem MJ, Peterson RE. Tissue distribution, metabolism, and elimination of perfluorooctanoic acid in male and female rats. J Biochem Toxicol 1991;6(2):83-92.
  43. Maestri L, Negri S, Ferrari M, Ghittori S, Fabris F, Danesino P, Imbriani M. Determination of perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctanesulfonate in human tissues by liquid chromatography/single quadrupole mass spectrometry. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 2006;20(18):2728-34.
  44. Perez F, Nadal M, Navarro-Ortega A, Fabrega F, Domingo JL, Barcelo D, Farre M. Accumulation of perfluoroalkyl substances in human tissues. Environ Int 2013;59:354-62.
  45. Kudo N, Suzuki E, Katakura M, Ohmori K, Noshiro R, Kawashima Y. Comparison of the elimination between perfluorinated fatty acids with different carbon chain length in rats. Chem Biol Interact 2001;134(2):203-16.
  46. Betts KS. PERFLUOROALKYL ACIDS: What Is the Evidence Telling Us? Environ Health Perspect. Volume 1152007. p A250-6.
  47. Stein CR, Savitz DA. Serum perfluorinated compound concentration and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children 5-18 years of age. Environ Health Perspect 2011;119(10):1466-71.
  48. Lau C, Anitole K, Hodes C, Lai D, Pfahles-Hutchens A, Seed J. Perfluoroalkyl acids: a review of monitoring and toxicological findings. Toxicol Sci 2007;99(2):366-94.
  49. Frisbee SJ, Brooks AP, Jr., Maher A, Flensborg P, Arnold S, Fletcher T, Steenland K, Shankar A, Knox SS, Pollard C and others. The C8 health project: design, methods, and participants. Environ Health Perspect 2009;117(12):1873-82.
  50. M. Clara, S. Scharf, S. Weiss, O. Gans, C. Scheffknecht (2008) Emissions of perfluorinated alkylated substances (PFAS) from point sources—identification of relevant branches. Water Science and Technology 58 (1) 59-66; DOI: 10.2166/wst.2008.641
  51. Lassen et al. (2015) Perfluoralkyl substances (PFASs) in textiles for children – Survey of chemical substances in consumer products No 136, 2015. Report by Danish Ministry of Environment and Food, Danish Environmental Protection Agency
  52. Taylor, P. H., Yamada, T., Striebich, R. C., Graham, J. L., & Giraud, R. J. (2014). Investigation of waste incineration of fluorotelomer-based polymers as a potential source of PFOA in the environment. Chemosphere110, 17-22
  53. Johnsie R. Lang, B. McKay Allred, Jennifer A. Field, James W. Levis, and Morton A. Barlaz (2017) National Estimate of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substance (PFAS) Release to U.S. Municipal Landfill Leachate Environmental Science & Technology201751 (4), 2197-2205 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b05005
  54. Rahman, M. F., Peldszus, S., & Anderson, W. B. (2014). Behaviour and fate of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in drinking water treatment: a review. Water research50, 318-340.
  55. Smith et al. (2016) Environmental fate and effects of polyand perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) Prepared for the Concawe Soil & Groundwater Taskforce. https://www.concawe.eu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Rpt_16-8.pdf
  56. Kwok, K. Y., Yamazaki, E., Yamashita, N., Taniyasu, S., Murphy, M. B., Horii, Y., … & Lam, P. K. (2013). Transport of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from an arctic glacier to downstream locations: implications for sources. Science of the total environment447, 46-55.
  57. Young, C. J., Furdui, V. I., Franklin, J., Koerner, R. M., Muir, D. C., & Mabury, S. A. (2007). Perfluorinated acids in arctic snow: new evidence for atmospheric formation. Environmental science & technology, 41(10), 3455-3461.
  58. Haukås, M., Berger, U., Hop, H., Gulliksen, B., & Gabrielsen, G. W. (2007). Bioaccumulation of per-and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) in selected species from the Barents Sea food web. Environmental Pollution, 148(1), 360-371.