Table reproduced from: Glüge, J., et al., An overview of the uses of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts, 2020: DOI: 10.1039/d0em00291g
Use category/subcategory |
Function of PFAS |
Aerosol propellant |
Aerosol propellant |
Aerospace |
|
Phosphate esterbased brake and hydraulic fluids | Corrosion protection |
Gyroscopes | Flotation fluids in gyroscopes |
Wire and cable | High-temperature endurance, fire resistance, and high-stress crack resistance |
Turbineengine | Use as lubricant |
Turbineengine | Use as elastomeric seals |
Thermal control and radiator surfaces | Reject waste heat |
Coating | Protect underlying polymers from atomic oxygen attack |
Propellant system | Elastomers compatible to aggressive fuels and oxidizers |
Jet engine/satellite instrumentation | Use as lubricant |
Air conditioning |
Working fluid |
Antifoaming agent |
Prevent foaming |
Ammunition |
Make the final product rubbery and reduce the likelihood of an unplanned explosion due to shock; enable long-term storage without degradation of the polymer |
Apparel |
|
Breathable membranes | Polymeric PFAS are used as membranes |
Longlasting durable Water repellent finish | Provide water and oil repellence, stain resistance and soil release |
Automotive |
|
Car body | Weather resistance paint, no-wax brilliant top coat |
Automotive waxes | Aid spreading, improve the resistance of the polish to water and oil |
Windshield wiper fluid | Prevent icing of the wind shield |
Car body | Light, stable |
Engine and steering system | Polymeric PFAS are used as sealants and bearings |
Engine oil coolers | Heat transfer fluid |
Cylinder head coatings and hoses | Increase the fuel efficiency |
Cylinder head coatings and hoses | Reduce the fugitive gasoline vapour emissions |
Electronics | Cables and wires |
Fuel lines, steel hydraulic brake tubes | Corrosion protection |
Interior | Dirt repellent in carpets and seats |
Brake pad additives | ? |
Biotechnology |
|
Cell cultivation | Supply of oxygen and other gases to microbial cells |
Ultrafiltration and microporous membranes | Prevent bacterial growth |
Building and construction |
|
Architectural membranes e.g. in roofs | Resistance to weathering, dirt repellent, light |
Greenhouse | Transparent to both UV and visible light, resistant to weathering, dirt repellent |
Cement additive | Reduce the shrinkage of cement |
Cable and Wire insulation, gaskets & hoses | High-temperature endurance, fire resistance, and high-stress crack resistance |
Chemical industry |
|
Fluoropolymer processing aid | Emulsify the monomers, increase the rate of polymerization, stabilize fluoropolymers |
Production of chlorine and caustic soda (with asbestos diaphragms cells) | Binder for the asbestos-fibre-based diaphragms |
Production of chlorine and caustic soda (with fluorinated membranes) | Stable membrane in strong oxidizing conditions and at high temperatures |
Processing aids in the extrusion of high and liner lowdensity polyethylene film | Eliminate melt fracture and other flow-induced imperfections |
Tantalum, molybdenum, and niobium processing | Cutting or drawing oil |
Chemical reactions | Inert reaction media (especially for gaseous reactants) |
Polymer curing | Medium for crosslinking of resins, elastomers and adhesives |
Ionic liquids | Raw materials for ionic liquids |
Solvents | Dissolve other substances |
Cleaning products |
|
Cleaning compositions for hard surfaces | Enhance wettability |
Carpet and upholstery cleaners | Provide stain resistance and repel soil |
Cleaning compositions for adhesives | ? |
Dry cleaning fluids | Stabilizer, improve the removal of hydrophilic soil |
Cleaning of reverse osmosis membranes | Remove calcium sulphate |
Coatings, paints and varnishes |
|
Paints | Emulsifier for the binder, dispersant for the pigments, wetting agent |
Paints | Enhance the protective properties of anticorrosive paints |
Paints | Antifouling on ships |
Paints and coatings | Anti-crater, improved surface appearance, better flow and levelling, reduced foaming, decreased block, open-time extension, oil- and water repellency, dirt pickup resistance |
Paints and coatings | Form second coat on a first coat |
Coatings | Antistick and anticorrosive coatings |
Coatings | Highly durable and weatherable |
Conservation of books and manuscripts |
Preserve historical manuscripts |
Cook and bakingware |
Prevent food from sticking to the pan/baking ware |
Dispersions |
Disperse solutions |
Electroless plating |
Disperses the pitch fluoride in the plating solution |
Electronical devices |
|
Printed circuit boards | Use fibre-reinforced fluoropolymer layer |
Capacitors | Separation of high voltage components (dielectric fluid) |
Acoustical equipment | Provide an electrical signal in response to mechanical or thermal signals |
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) | Provide the liquid crystal with a dipole moment |
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) | Polymeric PFAS provide moisture sensitive coating for displays |
Light management films in flat panel display | Reduced static electricity build-up and dust attraction during fabrication |
Razors | Polymeric PFFAs is used on the razor |
Electroluminescent lamps | Polymeric PFAS is used as coating |
Electroplating (metal plating) |
|
Chrome plating | Prevent the evaporation of chromium(vi) vapour |
Nickel plating | Non-foaming surfactant |
Nickel plating | Increase the strength of the nickel electroplate by eliminating pinholes, cracks, and peeling |
Copper plating | Prevent haze by regulating foam and improving stability |
Tin plating | Help to produce a plate of uniform thickness |
Alkaline zinc and zinc alloy plating | |
Deposition of Fluoropolymer particles onto steel | Supported by fluorinated surfactants |
Electronic industry |
|
Testing of electronic devices and equipment | Inert fluids for electronics testing |
Heat transfer fluids | Cooling of electrical equipment |
Solvent systems and cleaning | Form the basis of cleaning solutions |
Carrier fluid/lubricant Deposition | Dissolve and deposit lubricants on a range of substrates during the manufacturing of hard disk drives |
Etching of piezoelectric ceramic filters | Etching solution |
Energy sector |
|
Solar collectors and photovoltaic cells | High vapour barrier, high transparency, great weatherability and dirt repellency |
Photovoltaic cells | Adhesives with PFAS hold mesh cathode in place |
Wind mill blades | Coating |
Coalbased power plants | Polymeric PFAS filter remove fly ash from the hot smoky discharge |
Coalbased power plants | Separation of carbon dioxide in flue gases |
Lithium batteries | Binder for electrodes |
Lithium batteries | Prevent thermal runaway reaction |
Lithium batteries | Improve the oxygen transport of lithium–air batteries |
Lithium batteries | Electrolyte solvents for lithium–sulfur batteries |
Ion exchange membrane in vanadium redox batteries | Polymeric PFAS are used as membranes |
Zinc batteries | Prevent formation of dendrites, hydrogen evolution and electrode corrosion due to adsorption onto the electrode surface |
Alkaline manganese batteries | MnO2 cathodes containing carbon black are treated with a fluorinated surfactant |
Polymer electrolyte fuel cells | Polymeric PFAS are used as membranes |
Power transformers | Cooling liquid |
Conversion of Heat to mechanical energy | Heat transfer fluids |
Fingerprint development |
Solvent |
Firefighting foam |
|
Fluoroprotein (FP) foams | Fuel repellents |
Filmforming Fluoroprotein (FFFP) Foam | Film formers, foam stabilizers |
Alcoholresistant film forming fluoroprotein (ARFFFP) foam | Film formers, foam stabilizers |
Aqueous filmforming foams (AFFF) | Film formers |
Alcoholresistant aqueous film forming foam (ARAFFF) | Foam stabilizers |
Flame retardants |
|
Polycarbonate resin | Flame retardants |
Other plastic | Flame retardants |
Floor covering including carpets and floor polish |
Improve wetting and levelling |
Soilrelease finishes for carpets | Provide water and oil repellence, stain resistance and soil release |
Aftermarket Carpet protection | Provide water and oil repellence, stain resistance and soil release |
Resilient linoleum | ? |
Laminated floor covering | ? |
Floor polish | Improve levelling and wetting |
Food production |
|
Wineries and dairies | Final filtration before bottling with polymeric PFAS |
Glass |
|
Surface Treatment | Make glass surfaces hydrophobic and oleophobic |
Surface Treatment | Prevents misting of glass |
Surface Treatment | Dirt-repellent |
Surface Treatment | Fire-or weather resistant |
Etching and polishing | Increase the speed of etching, improve wetting |
Drying as Production step in glass finishing | Solvents in solvent displacement drying |
Household applications |
|
Threads and joints | Polymeric PFAS is used for sealing |
Laboratory supplies, equipment and instrumentation |
|
Consumable materials (vials, caps, tape) | Made out of polymeric PFAS |
Personal protective equipment (gloves) | ? |
Particle filters | Minimize the sorption of compounds to the filter itself |
Solvents | Dissolve other substances |
LC instruments | Polymeric PFAS are used in the solvent degasser |
LC columns | Some columns are based on polymeric PFAS |
Reverse phase LC-Solvents | can contain PFAS |
Seals and membranes in UPLCs, autoclaves and ovens | are made out of polymeric PFAS |
Oils and greases in pumps | Form a thick oil layer and reduced wear |
Sterilization of an insulated vessel | Sterilization medium |
Electro plotting | Protein-sequencing membranes are made out of polymeric PFAS |
Analysing the phosphoamino content in proteins | Protein-sequencing membranes are made out of polymeric PFAS |
Leather |
|
Manufacturing of genuine leather | Improve the efficiency of hydrating, pickling, degreasing and tanning |
Repellent Treatment (genuine leather) | Provide water and oil repellence, stain resistance and soil release |
Manufacturing of synthetic leather | Polymer melt additives that impart oil and water repellency to the finished fibres |
Shoe brighteners | Improve the levelling of shoe brighteners |
Impregnation spray | Provide water and oil repellence, stain resistance and soil release |
Lubricants and greases | Form a thick oil layer and reduced wear |
Machinery and equipment | ? |
Manufacture of metal products |
|
Manufacture of basic metals | Inhibit the formation of acid mist during the electrowinning of copper |
Manufacture of fabricated metal products | ? |
Pickling of steel wires | Acid-pickling promoter |
Treatment of Coating of metal surfaces | Promote the flow of metal coatings, prevent cracks in the coating during drying |
Treatment of Coating of metal surfaces | Corrosion inhibitor on steel |
Etching of aluminium in alkali baths | Improving the efficient life of the alkali baths |
Phosphating process for aluminium | Fluoride-containing phosphating solutions help to dissolve the oxide layer of the aluminium |
Cleaning of metal surfaces | Disperse scum, speed runoff of acid when metal is removed from the bath, increase the bath life |
Water removal from processed parts | Solvent displacement |
Medical utensils |
|
Electronic devices that rely on high frequency signals (defibrillators, pacemakers, cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT), positron-emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) devices) | High dielectric insulators |
Video endoscope | Use in charge-coupled device colour filters |
Microbubble-based ultrasound contrast agents | Fluorinated gas inner core, which provides osmotic stabilization and contributes to interfacial tension reduction |
Xray imaging | Contrast enhancement agents |
Magnetic resonance imaging | Contrast agent |
Proton and 19F NMR imaging | Contrast agents |
Computed tomography and sonography | Contrast agents |
Radio-opaque materials | Polymeric PFAS has been used |
Surgical drapes and gowns | Improve water-, oil- and dirt-resistance |
Xray films | Wetting agents, emulsion additives, stabilizers and antistatic agent |
Dispersant | Facilitate the dispersion of cell aggregates |
contact lenses | Raw material |
Retinal detachment surgery and proliferative vitreoretinal | Endotamponade gases |
Retinal detachment surgery and proliferative vitreoretinal | Intraoperative tool during vitreoretinal surgery |
Eye drops | Delivery agent |
filters, tubing, O-rings, Seals and gaskets in dialysis machines | Made out of polymeric PFAS |
dialysis membranes | Made out of polymeric PFAS |
Catheter, stents, and needles | Provide low-friction and clot-resistant coatings |
Surgical patches and vascular Catheter | Use of polymeric PFAS |
Blood transfer and artificial Blood | Oxygen carrier |
Organ perfusion | Oxygen carrier |
Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty | Oxygen carrier |
Toothpaste | Enhances fluorapatite formation and inhibits caries |
Dental floss | Allows the narrow ribbon to slip easily between close-pressed teeth |
UV-hardened Dental restorative materials | Improve the wetting of the set materials |
Ventilation of respiratory airway | ? |
Anaesthesia | Polymeric PFAS is used to dry or humidify breath |
artificial heart pump | Blood compatible and durable |
Wound care | Cleaning burn residues |
Metallic and ceramic surfaces |
Generates easily removable sludge |
Mining |
|
Ore leaching in Copper and gold mines | Increase wetting of the sulfuric acid or cyanide that leaches the ore |
Ore leaching in Copper and gold mines | Acid mist suppressing agents |
Ore floating | Create stable aqueous foams to separate the metal salts from soil |
Separation of uranium contained in sodium carbonate and/or sodium bicarbonate solutions by nitrogen floatation | Improve the separation |
Concentration of vanadium compounds | Destruction of the mineral structure, increases the specific surface area and pore channel thus facilitating vanadium leaching |
Music instruments |
|
Guitar strings | Prevent loss of vibration due to residue build up |
Piano keys | Contain polymeric PFAS |
Piano | Eliminate squeaks in piano key |
Nuclear industry |
|
Lubricants for valves and ultracentrifuge bearings in UF6 enrichment plants | PFAS are used as the lubricants |
Oil & gas industry |
|
Drilling fluid | Foaming agent |
Drilling – insulating material for cable and Wire | Polymeric PFAS are used as insulating material |
Chemical driven oil Production | Increase the effective permeability of the formation |
Chemical driven oil Production | Foaming agent for fracturing subterranean formations |
Chemical driven oil Production | Heavy crude oil well polymer blocking remover |
Chemical driven gas Production | Change low-permeability sandstone gas reservoir from strong hydrophilic to weak hydrophilic |
Chemical driven gas Production | Eliminate reservoir capillary forces, dissolve partial solid, dis-assemble clogging, increase efficiency of displacing water with gas |
Oil and gas transport | Lining of the pipes is made out of polymeric PFAS |
Oil and gas transport | Reduce the viscosity of crude oil for pumping from the borehole through crude oil-in-water emulsions |
Oil and gas storage | Aqueous layer with PFAS prevents evaporation loss |
Oil and gas storage | Floating layer of cereal treated with PFAs prevents evaporation loss |
Oil containment (injection a Chemical barrier into Water) | Prevents spreading of oils or gasoline on water |
Oil and fuel filtration | Polymeric PFAS are used as membranes |
Optical devices |
|
Glass Fibre optics | Able to include rare earth in glass fibre optics |
Optical lenses | Provide optical lenses with low refractive index and high transparency |
Paper and packaging |
|
Paper and cardboard | Provide water- and oil repellency |
Manufacturing of Paper | Release agent for paper-coating compositions |
Particle physics |
|
Particle accelerators | Part of the detection assemblies |
Personal care products |
|
Cosmetics | Emulsifiers, lubricants, or oleophobic agents |
Cosmetics | Make creams etc. penetrate the skin more easily |
Cosmetics | Make the skin brighter |
Cosmetics | Make the skin absorb more oxygen |
Cosmetics | Make the makeup more durable and weather resistant |
Hair-conditioning formulations | Enhance wet combing and render hair oleophobic |
Pesticides |
|
Insecticide against the common housefly and carmine mite | Suffocation of the insect by the adsorbed fluorinated surfactant |
Insecticide against ants and cockroaches | ? |
Formulation additives | Anti-foaming agent |
Formulation additives | Dispersant, facilitate the spreading of plant protection agents on insects and plant leaves |
Formulation additives | Dispersant, increase uptake by insects and plants |
Formulation additive | Wetting agent for leaves |
Pharmaceutical industry |
|
Reaction vessels, stirrers, and other components | Use of polymeric PFAS instead of stainless steel |
Ultrapure Water systems | Polymeric PFAS are used as filter |
Packaging | Polymeric PFAS form moisture barrier film |
Manufacture of “microporous” particles | Processing aid |
Photographic industry |
|
Processing solutions | Antifoaming agent |
Processing solutions | Prevent formation of air bubbles in the solution |
Photographic materials, such as films and papers | Wetting agents, emulsion additives, stabilizers and antistatic agent |
Photographic materials, such as films and papers | Prevent spot formation and control edge uniformity in multilayer coatings |
Paper and plates | Anti-reflective agents |
Pharmaceuticals |
|
Active ingredient (fulvestrant) | Estrogen antagonists, inhibits the growth stimulus that the estrogen exert on cells |
Active ingredient | Pharmaceutical combination of dabigatran and proton pump inhibitors |
formulation additives | Dispersant in self-propelling aerosol pharmaceuticals |
formulation additives | Solvent |
Pipes, pumps, fittings and liners |
|
Pipes, pipe plugs, seal glands, pump parts, fasteners, fittings and liners | Polymeric PFAS are used for these applications |
Working fluid for pumps in the Electronics industry | Stable to reactive gases and aluminium chloride |
Plastic and rubber |
|
plastic | Polymeric PFAS micropowder as additive ? |
Thermoplastic | Plasticizer |
Bonding of rubber to steel | Allow adhesiveness bonding |
rubber and plastic | Antistatic agent |
resin | Improve weatherability and elasticity |
Polycarbonate resins | Flame retardant for polycarbonate resins |
Printing (inks) |
|
Toner and printer ink | Enhance ink flow and levelling, improve wetting, aid pigment dispersion |
Toner and printer ink | Impart water resistance to water-based inks |
inkyet recording heads | Make them ink repellent |
recording and printing Paper | ? |
Lithographic printing plates | ? |
Production of plastic and rubber |
|
Separation of mould and moulded material | Mould release agent |
Separation of mould and moulded material | Reduce imperfections in the moulded surface |
Foam blowing | Foam blowing agent |
Polyol foams | Foam regulator |
Polymer processing aid | Increase processing efficiency and quality of polymeric compounds |
Etching of plastic | Wetting agent |
Production of rubber | Antiblocking agent |
Fluoroelastomer formulation | Additive in curatives |
Refrigerant systems |
|
Refrigerant fluid system | Heat transfer fluid |
Refrigerant compressor | Lubricants |
Sealants and adhesives |
|
Sealants | Can be made out of polymeric PFAS |
Silicone rubber Seals | Prevents soiling |
adhesives | Improve levelling, spreading, and the penetration of the adhesive into the pore structure of the substrates |
adhesives | Antistatic agent |
Semiconductor industry |
|
Photoresist (itself) | Photoresist matrix, changes solubility when exposed to light |
Photoresist (photosensitizer) | Increase the photosensitivity of the photoresist |
Photoresist (photoacid generator) | Generate strong acids by light irradiation |
Photoresist (quencher) | Controlling the diffusion of the acid to unexposed region |
Antireflective Coating | Provide low reflectivity |
Developer | Facilitate the control of the development process |
Rinsing solution | Rinsing the photoresist to remove the developer |
Etching | Wetting agent |
Etching | Reduce the reflection of the etching solution |
Etching | Etching agent in dry etching |
cleaning of silicon wafers | Etch cleaning |
cleaning of integrated circuit modules | Remove cured epoxy resins |
cleaning vapour Deposition chamber | Remove dielectric film build up |
Wafer thinning | Non-stick coating composition on carrier wafer |
Vacuum pumps | Working fluid |
Technical equipment in contact with process Chemical or reactive plasma | Polymeric PFAS are used in inert moulds, pipes and elastomers |
Multilayer circuit board | Bonding ply composition |
Soil remediation |
|
vapour barrier material on top of contaminated Soil | Evaporation retarder |
Surfactants to mobilize pollutants | Surfactants to mobilize soil-bound contaminants in remediation |
Soldering |
|
vapour phase fluids in vapour phase soldering | Heat transfer medium |
Fluxing agent in solder paste | Low-foaming noncorrosive wetting agent |
Sport article |
|
Ski wax | Highly water repellent |
(Sailing) boat equipment | Weather protection of textiles; anti-fouling protection of ship hulls |
Tennis rackets | Used in coatings for tennis rackets |
Bicycle | Lubricants |
Climbing ropes | Provide water repellence, stain resistance and soil release |
Fishing lines | No water absorption, invisible in water, high knot strength |
Golf gloves | Antifouling protection for the natural sheep leather of the glove |
Stone, concrete and tile |
Impart oil and water repellency to the surface; delay oxidation and ageing of surface |
Textile and upholstery |
|
Surface Treatment | Provide water and oil repellence, stain resistance and soil release |
Waving yarn | Facilitate waving |
Textile production |
|
Dyeing and bleaching of textiles | Wetting agent |
Dyeing process using sulphur dyes | Antifoaming agent |
Dye transfer material | Release agent |
Textile Treatment baths | Antifoaming agent |
Fibre finishes | Emulsifying agent |
Tracing and tagging |
|
Tracking air–borne pollutants | Tracer in air |
Testing Ventilation systems | Tracer in air |
Mapping gas and petroleum reservoirs | Tracer in gas or petroleum |
Leak detection in cables, pipelines, landfill waste and underground storage tanks | Tracer in leaking material |
Tracking of marked items | Tracer in the marked item |
Watchmaking industry |
|
Lubricants | Form an oil layer and reduced wear |
Drying as Production step after aqueous cleaning | Solvents in solvent displacement drying |
Water and effluent treatment |
|
Filter membranes | Polymeric PFAS minimize the sorption of compounds to the filter itself |
Wire and cable |
Provide high-temperature endurance, fire resistance, and high-stress crack resistance |
Wood industry |
|
Drum filtration during bleaching | The used coarse fabric is made out of polymeric PFAS |
Coating for wood substrate | Clear coating is made out of polymeric PFAS |
wood particleboard | Part of adhesive resin |